Words and concepts can have various meanings depending on the context in which they are used. Here, we provide the descriptions as intended within the context of our thought experiment.

Analog
Superposition and entanglements are probability distributions. This makes information malleable, unstable, and unbounded. However, assuming coherence of information in a more or less neutral environment, the differences between a high probability and a low probability during the redistribution of entangled information can be so significant that there appears to be stability. Information then seems quantized. Due to this effect, for example, elementary particles can be recognized. But because information is spread across the entire universe through overlap with neighbors and neighbors of neighbors, information is not quantized but analog.

Antimatter
In the midst of countless events, the improbable occasionally occurs. In terms of relation physics, antimatter is a development in the improbable direction, giving rise to a relation set or ‘particle’ with greater complexity than a photon. This can only occur briefly and locally (in macroscopic terms), because in a coherent universe developments follow one direction, the most probable direction, whereby small improbabilities are neutralized.

Binary
Dual. Limited to two choices, 1 or 0, on or off, up or down, open or closed, plus or minus.

Bit
A unit of information that can assume two values.

Boson
In the realm of relation physics, a boson is an emergent phenomenon. Its behavior depends on – or is a consequence of – the environment. The key characteristics of bosons are as follows:

• Bosons have relations/entanglements with mixed dimensions. This is in contrast to fermions, which also have fixed entanglements with the universe (similar to spinors).
• They are their own antiparticles, devoid of a direction in time and impervious to the angular direction of development imposed by the universe.
• Bosons possess a spin-1 property, enabling them to attain all possible orientations through angular redistribution within a single probability cycle.
• Through their combinations of dimensions, bosons can, together with other bosons, occupy the same quantum state.

Causality
A cause-and-effect relation where the outcome of an interaction is predetermined only exists on a macroscopic level. On the quantum level, events are unpredictable and indeterminate. A predictable event on a macroscopic scale (such as an apple falling from a tree) is, in a relation interpretation, nothing more than the most probable option. This is because in a coherent combination of very large numbers of interactions, the improbable options can be neglected.

Collapse
In terms of relation physics, a collapse is a redistribution of information. Collapse marks the moment when reversibility has become so improbable that it can be neglected. The collapse is the ‘point of no return’. It is an event.

In a pure relation interpretation, during collapse, no concrete value or state arises (as occurs in observation or measurement from a macroscopic perspective), but one superposition transitions into the next.

Decoherence
The redistribution of information with the environment within a larger whole. Decoherence is often likened to a ‘heat bath’. Just as an object adopts the temperature of its surroundings, information is shared through entanglement with its environment.

Degree of freedom
The concept of degree of freedom in the sense of an independent parameter is a macroscopic one. In a relation interpretation, even the degrees of freedom at the quantum level are considered equivalent and interchangeable. At this level, due to their superposition, they are not completely independent. Independence does not exist at the quantum level; and not in a coherent universe at all, for that matter.

Emergence
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. New things emerge from developments in a coherent environment. More is different. Part 1 is all about emergence.

Energy
Energy is a macroscopic concept. In terms of relation physics, energy is related to the probability of change. Potential energy corresponds to the quantity of potential changes in a quantum system. A complex superposition (a large mass in classical terms) implies a significant potential for energy because there are possibilities for developments in the direction of decreasing complexity. This pertains to the complexity of baryonic matter, but also complexity of the neutral sets, the information of distance and spacetime. The latter is the energy of dark matter, stored in linear entanglements of spacetime. What remains is ‘dark energy’, which is also explained with the concept of ‘zero point energy’. In our thought experiment, this energy is contained in the concept of probability distribution, the ultimate uncertainty and ultimate source of change.

Entanglement, quantum entanglement
A commonly used description is: Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon from quantum mechanics where two or more quantum objects are interconnected in such a way that one object cannot be fully described without specifically referencing the other, even if the two objects are spatially separated (‘non-local’). An entangled pair forms an indivisible whole. ‘It is here and also there.’ Entanglement is shared information, overlapping information. It is the coherence in our world.

Entropy
Entropy is a measure of probability. Usually, entropy refers to Shannon entropy, a concept from information theory. Shannon entropy operates with microstates that either exist or do not exist. This is equivalent to working with 1 or 0, as is done in computing. Relation physics does not involve 1 or 0 but operates with shared information and differences in complexity. See ‘superentropy’.

Event
See observation

Gravity
In terms of relation physics, gravity is the probability that spacetime (simply entangled information) will diminish in the vicinity of mass (complexly entangled information). Simply because there are more options for that to happen. Under conditions where other influences (classically referred to as electromagnetic force, weak force, and strong force) are not significant, the amount of spacetime between two systems with mass will decrease.

Information
In information theory, which deals with the quantification and calculation of information, it is said that information arises when an event occurs, and it was uncertain beforehand whether it would actually happen. This is a binary concept; on/off, yes/no, plus/minus, up/down, open/closed, 1 or 0. However, when we consider superposition, which can have more than two and non-discrete values, this becomes: Information arises when an event occurs, and it was uncertain beforehand what that event would be.

As Wheeler put it: ‘it from bit’; information is the basis of everything. This information does not necessarily consist of discrete building blocks. In terms of relation physics, everything is related to each other. But information in this context is not a homogeneous mass; otherwise, nothing could be distinguished. There is variation in the way information overlaps, leading to different behaviors during change. Is information the event itself? Is it the change that occurs during a collapse? Regardless, beneath this information lies the fundamental uncertainty of superposition.

In terms of relation physics, there is no unit of information at the quantum level. It is not possible to calculate with it. Due to the factors of superposition and entropy, information is malleable. However, in a more or less neutral environment, the differences between probable and improbable redistribution of entangled information can be significant enough to exhibit some (apparent) stability. Information then seems quantized. However, this is not the case.

Interaction
See observation.

Mass
Mass is a macroscopic concept. In terms of relation physics, mass is an emergent property of a quantum system that arises when there is superposition with more than one entanglement/relation (beyond the general coherence that connects everything in the universe, the neutral field). The more complex the superposition, the more challenging the redistribution of information with the environment will be, simply because there are fewer options for it. When no other factors are at play (such as charge – another macroscopic concept – affecting the probability of change), the spacetime between two mass-containing systems will always decrease. In classical physics, this effect is called gravity.

In terms of relation physics, the mass of a system indicates something about the (im)probability with which, due to its complexity, it exchanges information. The more complex the superposition, the greater the mass.

Measurement
See observation.

No-hiding theorem
The no-hiding theorem asserts that all information in the universe is conserved. Information cannot be copied or erased but can be transferred to the environment or transformed into other forms.

Observation
Just like an interaction, measurement, or event, an observation is the collapse of entanglement. Shared information is redistributed in this process. Existing entanglements vanish and new entanglements emerge. Both (all) parties involved in the observation change.

Particle, quantum particle
The term ‘quantum particle’ is not helpful for our thought experiment. In terms of relation physics, a ‘particle’ is a set of relations with other elements, existing together in superposition. It is, therefore, not delineable. It is a set of probabilities, the superposition of multiple values simultaneously. In terms of relation physics, a particle is not indivisible. It is disassembled and reconstructed with each event. New generations of relation sets arise each time. However, these often resemble the parents as the most probable options frequently involve minor changes.

Pixel
A consequence of the no-hiding theorem is that all changes in the universe must occur simultaneously. It cannot be the case that there is a bit more or a bit less information in the universe at any given moment. This is likened to the jumping of pixels on a computer screen. Because relation physics operates with probability distributions, thinking in coherent probability cycles that are in phase with each other is helpful.

Probability
When relation sets (‘particles’) differ, and the no-hiding theorem applies, changes for which there are more or better options present will occur more frequently. This gives rise to probability. It is also the upward causality that we’ve discussed in Part 1. Probability applies not only to linear but also to angular exchanges. In a coherent system, probability distributions/probability cycles throughout the universe must be in phase with each other. They have the same rhythm and direction. Redistribution follows one specific angular direction. This one-directional redistribution is known as downward causality, another topic we delved into in our previous book.

Probability distribution
In our thought experiment, the concept of probability distribution concerns entanglements and superpositions, and should be understood as an incomputable probability distribution. The odds depend on uncertainty in the neighbors, and neighbors of neighbors, and ultimately the entire universe as a whole changes in one cycle of probability.

Quanta, quantum mechanics, quantum information
From the perspective of relation physics, the terms ‘quanta’ and ‘quantum’ are poorly chosen as they focus on particles instead of shared information. Would a reference to a coherence of probabilities have been more helpful?

Qubit
A qubit, short for quantum bit, is a unit of quantum information. Unlike classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1, a qubit represents a superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously.

Qudit
Superposition of quantum information with a ‘d number’ of alternatives.

Spacetime
Spacetime is information, and just as physical as baryonic matter. Unlike The Standard Model of Particle Physics, which does not include spacetime or distance, the model of relation physics does. Spacetime, or distance, is represented here by the ‘neutral set’.

Spin
In terms of relation physics, quantum spin describes the change in orientation relative to the environment. Spin is not an intrinsic property of a relation set/’particle’ but a behavior resulting from the exchange of information with the environment. It involves angular redistribution of information. Angular redistribution occurs in probability cycles simultaneously and in the same direction throughout the universe. Different elementary particles can have different quantum numbers (a term from particle physics). This difference is related to the ease with which the particle jumps to a different orientation. Photons experience no time (angular direction of change of the universe) and can reach any possible new orientation from any initial orientation within one probability cycle. They are spin-1 particles. Fermions are so-called spin-½ particles. They are bound to the angular direction of change of the universe and cannot, within one probability cycle, achieve more than the negative orientation version of themselves (spin up versus spin down). A return to the initial orientation requires an additional cycle. The direction of spin is not objectively determinable but depends on the observer.

Superentropy
Unlike Shannon entropy, superentropy does not operate with 1 or 0, where a microstate either exists or does not exist. Instead, it deals with shared information in the form of entanglements and superposition. Through overlap with neighbors and neighbors of neighbors, this coherence involves the entire universe. The difference in the complexity of superposition determines the probability of change. Developments tend to move in the direction with the most, or best-fitting, options. Superentropy thus determines the direction of developments.

Superposition
In terms of relation physics superposition is quantum superposition: the possession of two or more values/states at one point simultaneously. ‘It is this and also that’. The value is said to be undetermined. Upon collapse of superposition, the value is determined. Collapse occurs during observation/interaction/event/measurement.

Time
When discussing time in terms of chronological order (there is a before and an after) or time related to causality (this follows from that), it pertains to an emergent concept applicable at the macroscopic level. The fundamental direction of time is not fixed; change is more fundamental than the direction of time. Developments can briefly and locally move backward at the quantum level because the improbable can also occur. Entropy is the factor that eliminates the possibility of reversing the direction of developments at the macroscopic level because improbabilities are neutralized. In other words, the direction of time is caused by entropy. The direction of probability is also a consequence of the redistribution of information. Since everything in the universe is interconnected, the direction of redistribution must, as a whole, be the same everywhere.